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APPLIED PHYSICAL
SCIENCE MANUAL
(Paul P. - 2020 CE)
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ON SCIENCE: Introduction:
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Science is what we do to find out
about the natural world. Natural
sciences include physics,
chemistry, biology, geology and
astronomy. Science uses
mathematics and logic, which are
sometimes called "formal
sciences". Natural science makes
observations and experiments.
Science produces accurate facts,
scientific laws and theories.
'Science' also refers to the large
amount of knowledge that has
been found using this process.
Research uses the scientific
method. Scientific research uses
hypotheses based on ideas or
earlier knowledge, which can be
categorized through different
topics. Then those hypotheses are
tested by experiments.
People who study and research
science and try to find out
everything about it are called
scientists. Scientists study things
by looking at them very carefully,
by measuring them, and by doing
experiments and tests. Scientists
try to explain why things act the
way they do, and predict what will
happen.
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PHYSICS CHEAT-SHEET:
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Force and motion:
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* F = ma (Force = mass x
acceleration)
* F = GmM/r^2 (Newton's
gravitational law)
* v = u + at (velocity =
initial velocity +
acceleration x time)
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Energy and work:
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* E = mc^2 (energy =
mass x speed of light)
* KE = 1/2mv^2 (kinetic
energy = half mass x
velocity squared)
* PE = mgh (potential
energy = mass x gravity
x height)
* W = Fd (work = force
x distance)
* P = EV/t (power =
energy/time)
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Heat and thermodynamics:
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* q = mcΔT (heat transferred =
mass x specific heat x change
in temperature)
* ΔU = q + W (change in
internal energy = heat transferred
+ work done)
* ΔS = q/T (entropy change =
heat transferred over
temperature)
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Electricity and circuits:
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* V = IR (voltage = current x
resistance)
* P = IV (power = current x
voltage)
* W = pdV (energy lost in a
battery = power x change in
voltage)
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Optics:
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* n2sinθi = n2sinθr (Snell's
law of refraction)
* λ = c/v (wavelength =
speed of light/frequency)
* n = θi/θr (index of refration =
angle of incidence/angle of
refraction)
* R = A/d (radius of curvature =
aperture/distance)
* 1/f = 1/do + 1/di (focal length =
distance from lens to object +
distance from lens to image)
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Quantum mechanics:
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* h = E/λ (Planck's constant =
energy/wavelength)
* E = hc/λ (energy = Planck's
constant x speed of light/
wavelength)
* ΔE = hω (energy change =
Planck's constant x frequency)
* ΔxΔp ≥ (1/2)h (uncertainty
principle)
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CHEMISTRY CHEAT-SHEET:
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Atoms and molecules:
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* Atom = smallest building
block of matter, characterized
by atomic number and mass
number
* Molecule = group of two or
more atoms held together by
covalent bonds
* Ions = atoms or molecules
with a net charge due to the
imbalance between number
of protons and electrons
* Salt = crystalline compound
of two or more ionic species
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Chemical reactions:
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* Law of conservation of mass =
mass cannot be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction,
but can change form
* Law of conservation of energy =
energy is not created or destroyed
in a chemical reaction, but can
change form
* Stoichiometry = art of calculating
the proportions of substances in a
chemical reaction
* Redox reaction = reaction in
which the oxidation numbers of
compounds involved change,
resulting in transfer of electrons
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Chemical thermodynamics:
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* Enthalpy = heat released or
absorbed by a chemical reaction
* Gibbs free energy = measure of
energy available in a chemical
system, at constant pressure and
temperature
* Standard state energy = standard
enthalpy change of 1 mole of a
substance in its standard state
* Standard state heat capacity =
standard enthalpy change of 1
mole of a substance per degree
change in temperature
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Chemical kinetics:
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* Activation energy = minimum
energy required for a reaction to
occur
* Rate constant = measure of
the rate of reaction
* Concentration = amount of
substance per unit volume or mass
* First-order reaction = reaction
where reactants are consumed
or produced in a 1:1 ratio
* Second-order reaction =
reaction where the rate is
dependent on the square of the
concentration of one of the reactants
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Electrochemistry:
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* Electrolyte = substance that can
dissolve in water to form ions
* Cation = ion with positive charge
* Anion = ion with negative charge
* Galvanic cell = electric cell where
electrons move from anode (negative)
to cathode (positive)
* electrolysis = process where an
electric current is passed through
a solution to obtain a product from
a reaction
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Organic chemistry:
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* Carbon = can bond with up to
four other atoms, forming chains,
rings and other complex structures
* Hydrocarbons = molecules made
up entirely of hydrogen and carbon
* Alcohols = molecules with a
carbon-hydrogen-oxygen bond
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BIOLOGY CHEAT-SHEET:
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Cells and tissue:
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* Cell = the basic unit of life
* Tissue = group of similar cells
performing specific functions (e.g.
muscle, nerve, connective)
* Organ = a collection of tissues
working together to perform a
specific function
* Organ system = a group of
organs working together to
perform a specific function (e.g.
respiratory, circulatory, digestive)
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Molecular biology:
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* DNA = blueprint for life, holds
genes (sequence of nucleotides
that code for proteins)
* RNA = carries genetic information
from DNA to ribosome to produce
proteins
* Protein = molecule made up of
amino acids, vital for cellular
structure and function, can act as
enzymes, receptors, or hormones
* Enzyme = protein that catalyzes
a specific reaction to speed it up
* Hormone = signaling molecule
that travels through the body to
affect behavior of target cells
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Cellcycle:
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* Interphase = cell grows and
prepares to divide
* Mitosis = cell divides into two
daughter cells
* G1/G2/S/M = 4 stages of the
cellcycle
* S = synthesis stage, where
DNA is replicated and prepared
to reproduce
* M = mitosis stage, where
chromosomes are separated
and divided evenly between
two daughter cells
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Genetics:
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* Mendelian genetics = inheritance
of traits through a single gene
(A, a), determined by dominant
and recessive alleles
* DNA replication = process by
which the DNA molecule is copied
to produce two identical daughters
* DNA transcription = process by
which DNA is converted into RNA
for translation into proteins
* DNA translation = process by
which RNA is read to make amino
acids and produce proteins
* Genetic mutation = change in
DNA, can produce new variation
and potential for evolution
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Evolution:
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* Natural selection = process by
which organisms with advantageous
traits are more likely to survive
and pass on those traits to offspring
* Mutations = changes in DNA,
may provide new variation for
natural selection to act on
* Adaptation = change in a
population over time in response
to selection pressures, can be
genetic (e.g. sickle cell trait)
or behavioral (e.g. nest building)
* Speciation = process where
populations evolve into new
species over time
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EARTH-SCIENCE CHEAT-SHEET:
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Geography:
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* Biosphere = part of Earth
that contains organic life
* Atmosphere = outer layer
of Earth, contains gases such
as nitrogen and oxygen
* Hydrosphere = part of Earth
that contains water
* Lithosphere = solid, outermost
layer of Earth, includes land
and ocean floor
* Asthenosphere = plastic,
middle layer of Earth, allows
movement of tectonic plates
* Inner core = solid, inner core
of Earth, mainly iron and nickel
* Outer core = liquid, outer core
of Earth, mainly iron and nickel
* Troposphere = atmosphere layer
where the weather takes place
* Stratosphere = atmosphere
layer where the ozone layer is
located
* Mesosphere = atmosphere layer
where Aurora occurs
* Exosphere = atmosphere layer
where space starts
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Geology:
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* Igneous rocks = rocks formed
from the solidification of molten
rock
* Sedimentary rocks = rocks
formed by accumulation of
particles (sand, sediment)
* Metamorphic rocks = rocks
that have been transformed
by heat and pressure from
other types of rocks
* Volcano = opening on
Earth's surface from which
magma and other material
is ejected
* Seismic waves = waves
produced by movement in
Earth's interior or on its surface
* Fault = a break or fracture
in the Earth's crust where rocks
can move past each other
* Earthquake = large-scale
movement of rocks due to
energy release on fault planes
* Tsunami = large-scale ocean
waves caused by underwater
landslides or earthquakes
* Erosion = process by which
material is removed from Earth's
surface
* Sedimentation = process by
which material is deposited on
Earth's surface
* Plate tectonics = theory that
explains how rock layers on the
Earth's surface move and form
mountains and ocean basins
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Meteorology:
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* Weather = condition of the
atmosphere in a certain location
for a short period of time
* Climate = long-term average of
weather in a specific location
* Temperature = measure of the
total heat energy in the atmosphere
* Humidity = amount of moisture
in the air compared to what it
can hold at a certain temperature
* Precipitation = rainfall or snowfall
in a water cycle
* Clouds = collection of water
droplets in the air, can indicate
weather conditions
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